5) - Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory defines learning as an internal mental process that may or may not be reflected in immediate behavioral change (Bandura, 1986).

In this theory;

• People learn by observing others.
• Learning is internal
• Learning is Goal-directed behaviour.

 People emphasize on learning by

         - Observing

         - Modeling

         - Experience - reinforcement (learn experience from others)

Note! This theory identifies human behaviour as an interaction of personal factors, behaviourism and environment.

Modelling - Modeling is a general term that refers to behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes deriving from observing one or more models. There are 3 types of modelling: - (1) Direct modelling, (2) Symbolic modelling, and (3) Synthesized modelling.

Reciprocal Causation/Determination

Learning involves the interaction of several factors, such as behavior, environment, storing information in memory and personal factors (i.e., beliefs & expectations: e.g., relevant to ability).  Such interactive effects are considered "mutually influencing" -- usually referred to as reciprocal causation / determination. For Bandura, it is through the observations of models that an individual's perceptions and actions influence their cognitive development.

Example.: You get a low score on an algebra test (environmental factor) which influences your belief (personal factor) about your ability to do algebra. Your belief, in turn, influences your behavior -- in this case, it's your study habits -- and your behavior influences the environment -- in this case, you got a tutor to help you study

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Social Cognitive Theory of Learning

Bandura - Bobo Doll Study

Bandura (1961) conducted a study to investigate if social behaviors (i.e. aggression) can be acquired by imitation.
24 Children watched an adult model behave aggressively towards a blow up toy called a bobo doll. Another 24 children were exposed to a non-aggressive model and the final 24 child were used as a control group and not exposed to any model at all

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Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Application in Learning and Teaching

General educational implications of cognitive theories: 

1. Cognitive processes influence learning.

2. Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective or inappropriate cognitive processes, especially for children with learning disabilities, who tend to process information less effectively. Therefore, teachers need to be aware that all students are trying to learn something, as well as what they are trying to learn.

3. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought.

4. People organize the things they learn. Therefore, teachers can facilitate students' learning by presenting information in an organized manner. This organization should reflect students' previous knowledge and show how one thing relates to the other (i.e., helping students understand and make connections).

5. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned. Teachers should then show how new ideas relate to previous learning.

6. People control their own learning. Ultimately students, not their teachers, determine what things will be learned and how they will be learned.

Conclusion

This theory emphasizes that students  learning involve interaction factors. It might be the environment or behaviour or even personal factors etc. These interaction factors influence students to behave in a certain way. Learning emphasize on observing, modeling and experience by others. The students learn though observation of models that an individuals perceptions and actions influence their cognitive development. This is known to be "reciprocal determination".

Therefore as we educators should identify the students learning behaviour and try to modify our lesson according to it. It will help students gain maximum out of the lesson we deliver them in the classroom environment.

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The Cognitive Theory

4) . Vygotsky's Developmental Theory 

Vygotsky is credited with developing the concept of Social Cognition (aka Social Development Theory of Learning), which proposes that:

1) Social Interaction and culture has a dramatic impact on cognitive development.

2) Cognitive processes (language, thought, reasoning) develop through social interaction.

3) Learning is largely mediated by social interaction of students and "More Knowledgeable Others" (e.g. teachers, parents, coaches, peers, experts, etc.) 

Social Dislocation

Vygotsky believed that “education leads development, which is the result of social learning through the internalization of culture and social relationships.” Gindis 335

“What children can do with the assistance of others might be in some sense even more indicative of their mental development than what they can do alone.” Vygotsky 1978

“A disability is a kind of social dislocation brought about by a relationship of the child to his environment. Although the disability itself is a biological fact, the educator is confronted not so much by biological facts as by their social consequences.”  Vygotsky 1995

Inclusion based on positive differentiation”   Vygotsky 1995

“Only a truly differentiated learning environment can fully develop the higher psychological functions and overall personality of a child with a disability”  (Gindis 1999)

Zone of Proximal development

Vygotsky centred much of his research on a phenomenon he coined as "the Zone of Proximal Development," or ZPD

Vygotsky stated:

"The zone of proximal development defines those functions that have not yet matured, but are in the process (of doing so)…"

“…what is the zone of proximal development today will be the actual development level tomorrow – that is, what a child can do with assistance toady she will be able to do by herself tomorrow"

1) What a student can do alone versus what he/she can do with guidance

2) Students reach their limits sooner when performing independently

3) Students’ achievement is elevated when supported by teachers & more able peers

Scaffolding

Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) developed Vygotsky’s notion of a ZPD.

They introduced the concept of scaffolding, which refers to the context provided by knowledgeable people such as adults to help children to develop their cognitive skills

An important aspect of scaffolding is that there is a gradual withdrawal of support as the child’s knowledge and confidence increase.

Example of Scaffolding

Left to his own devices, could this boy make his sister a birthday cake?

His mother uses scaffolding to create a situation in which he can begin to move into a zone of proximal development.

Central Ideas and Contribution to Learning theory:

1. Vygotsky emphasis on language development and its effect on learning. He believed its not the maturity element that improves one’s cognitive but the social interaction for conceptual understandings.

2.  Complex mental processes began as social activities. Vygotskycalled this process of social activities being internalized as mental activities "internalization."

3.  Children can often accomplish more difficult tasks when they have the assistance of other people more advanced and competent than themselves.

4. Tasks within the zone of proximal development promote maximum cognitive growth. This is the zone of learning for a child where he can learn something with the assistance of others.

5. The idea of scaffoldinglearning comes from Vygotsky'szone of proximal development theory.

Scaffolding refers to learning situations in which adults and other more competent individuals provide some form of guidance or structure that enables students to engage in learning activities within their zone of proximal development.

6 He believed that it is co-operation that act as a basis of learning.

Conclusion

This theory suggest that to learn something there is need for another person. To learn the subject matter the student need support from their colleagues. This theory identifies that the students need help when they cannot do things by themselves. To move from this stage the student need either help from the fellow students or the teacher. This stage is known to be ZPD. In this stage Scaffolding is encouraged where the students learn by repeating the activity by themselves. They need guidance from the teacher or the fellow students to complete the activity or the task.

It is important as teachers, we should identifies these types of students (students in ZPD) and guide them to complete their work well.

References

Gindis, B. (1999b). Vygotsky’s vision: Reshaping the   practice of special education for the 21st century.   Remedial and Special Education, 20, 333-340.

media.wix.com/.../24c9c7_a4cf8171374075f7b5782afe780249f5.ppt

www.simplypsychology.org/Vygotsky.ppt

www.idemployee.id.tue.nl/g.w.m.rauterberg/.../sociocultural_theory.ppt

3) Cognitive Leaning Theory 

Many cognitive theories focus on how people think about the information they receive from the environment. In cognitive Learning theory students learn through visual and auditory process. They learn more on listening and seen the pictures or the activities regarding the lesson. The teacher who knows about this theory should have enough knowledge and be prepared to make the lesson more interactive with the involvement of the students.

This theory mainly focus on how a student acquires, processes, stores, retrieves and activates his  knowledge during the different phases of the process of learning and making knowledge meaningful and helping students organize and relate new information to prior knowledge in memory. 

Video on Cognitive Theory Of Learning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUlfc5fzXV4

Edward Proposed:

• Learning can occur without reinforcement
• Learning can occur without a change in behaviour
• Intervening variables must be considered
• Behaviour is purposive
• Expectation of fact behaviour
• learning results in an organized body of information.

Gestalt  - He emphasized the importance of organizational processes of perception, learning, and problem solving.

• Perception is often different from reality. This includes optical illusions.

• The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

• The organism structures and organizes experience. 

• The organism is predisposed to organize experience in particular ways

Basic assumptions of cognitive learning theory;
1. Memory system is an active organized processor of information.
2. That prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
3. Some learning processes may be unique to human beings.
4. Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes.
5. People are actively involved in the learning process.
6. Knowledge is organized.”
7. Objective, systematic observations of people’s behavior should be the focus of scientific inquiry
8. Many cognitive theories focus on how people think about the information they receive from the environment-
9. How they perceive the stimuli around them,
10. How they put what they ’ve perceived into their memories,
11. How they “find” what they ’ve learned when they need to use it, and so own…collectively known as “information processing theory” (Ormrod, 2008, p. 163).

Video on Cognitive Learning Theories - Lady Gaga

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8mo2CLSKJ8&feature=youtu.be

Conclusion

Teaching is not just giving a lecture in front of the group of students. Teaching facilitates students to learn and understand the subject matter. The teacher should not keep the students sitting for 40 minutes, but he should enhance students centered learning environment for the students to gain maximum out of the lesson. 

In my opinion as educators / teachers we must observe students learning behaviours, their attitudes to wards learning, for that we must consider the environment inside and out side the  classroom and their personal needs and ideals as well.

SUMMARY OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY'S THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

A tabular comparison of Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development. This will illustrates the similar factors and non-similar factors between both the theories.

SN	Educational Issue	Piaget’s Cognitive- Developmental Perspective	Vygotsky’s Socio-cognitive Developmental Perspective
1	What does during cognitive development?	Domain-general mental operations that can be used to solve problems in various contexts.	Domain specific skill knowledge and expertise that is specific to a culturally valued problem.
2	How does learning occur?	Through discovery, invention. Learning is internal process of making sense of the external World.	Through social transmission. Learning is cognitive apprenticeship in which knowledge is passed from more able members of the culture to less able ones.
3	Is cognitive development universal or is it culturally specific?	Universal cognitive development unfolds in an invariant sequence.	Culturally-specific. Students develop skills and understandings that are valued by the culture but do not develop skills and understandings in non-valued domains.
4	What is the source of gains in cognitive development?	Rich, stimulating, challenging and responsive environments. Given these conditions and active, independent exploration, students construct knowledge.	Social interaction and guidance from highly competent   members of the culture. Students co-construct knowledge with competent partners through a process of guided participation
5	What is the role of the teacher?	To provide students with rich, stimulating, challenging, and responsive environments. Create cognitive conflicts. Ask questions about relationships (same? different?).	To select culturally valued problems to solve, introduce the tools of the culture, provide scaffolding within the student’s zone of proximal development, probe-question-scaffolding students’ thinking during dialogue.
6	What is the role of peers?	To stimulate cognitive conflict so act as to create disequilibrium.	To act as a mentor and guide, in much the same ways as the teacher.
7	How important is language development to cognitive development?	Largely unimportant.  Language is a by-product of thought.	Crucial.  Language is the most important tool of thought.
8	Recommended instructional strategies	Discovery-based learning;          Montessori classrooms; interest areas; project-based learning; curiosity-inducing strategies.	Scaffolding in the zone of proximal development (model—coach—fade); dialogue within an instructional conversation; cooperative learning.

Conclusion

One theory is cognitive developmental perspective while the other one is social cognitive perspective. In Piaget's the learning process occur through identification or finding out the subject matter, more on research work. but in Vygotsky's theory leaning process depends on social transmission, where knowledge is passed from more able members to less able members of the culture. 

In the first theory the role of the teacher is to provide a well designed suitable learning environment to stimulate the response to learning matters. However in the second theory the teacher play a mediator role to introduce cultural tools and valued problems related to the culture. So teacher provide maximum support to the students to gain their cognitive development. The role of the students (peers) is to develop discussions, negotiation to learn the subject matter thoroughly. Meanwhile in the Vygotsky's theory the students (peers) acts as mentors and guide the instruction by the teacher.

Therefore in the Piaget's theory students learning process depend on the findings, observations, creativity etc. While in the Vygotsky's theory students learning process depend on scaffolding (support) in the zone of proximal development.  

Humanistic theory of Motivation

Introduction

1. Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s.
2. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems.
3. Humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings.

Motivation

The process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. 

Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

There two theorists who mainly talk about Humanistic Approach of Motivation and are
1) Carl Roger  (1902 - 1987)

                           
2) Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970)

1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

This theory basically talks about the human factor and their needs. A person to become in a state where he reaches his self-actualization he need to fulfill is basic and other needs.

There are 5 level of need addressed in this theory;

1) Physiological Needs (such as Food, shelter, clothing etc.)

2) Safety Needs (Physical safety and security)

3) Social Needs (Social interaction with others, Relationships, group memberships etc)

4) Self Esteem (Self confidence of a person, recognition and approval of the person)

5) Self-actualization (Self fulfillment, social growth, pride, accomplishment etc)

There are some criticism against this theory. They suggest that this theory is not applicable for the people who needs special care.

2) Carl Roger's Humanistic Personality Theory 

Carl Roger supported Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory. In this theory basically talk about genuineness, acceptance and empathy.

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves.e humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. 

Self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e. who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).  Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.

The self-concept includes three components:-

1)Self worth (or self-esteem)

2)Self-image 

3)Ideal self 

Conclusion
Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons to perform various actions

In both the theories, humans are constantly reacting with their subjective reality - changes continuously in the development of self-concept, positive regard is key.

Therefore if a person who want to fulfill his needs he need to think positive aspect of it and try get maximum out of it.

References

https://www.boundless.com/psychology/personality/the-humanistic-perspective/rogers-theory/

https://www.boundless.com/psychology/the-science-of-psychology/history-of-psychology/humanistic-perspective/

2) Piaget's developmental theory 

Piaget is a Swiss psychologist. He started his work just before second world war. The main research areas of Piaget were how children develop and learn. He compared his theory with previous laboratory experiments and he developed the theory from child’s observable behaviours. 

Piaget's Key Ideas

1. Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation
2. Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.
3. Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.  
4. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other. 
5. Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features. 
6. Class Inclusion The understanding, more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs) 
7. Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different. 
8. Decentration
9. The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.
10. Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development. 
11. Operation The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads. 
12. Schema (or scheme) The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together. 
13. Stage A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of understanding some things but not others 

The Key Ideas of Piaget's

Piaget’s stages of Development

Stage	Stage defined	Explanation/ Implications
1 Sensorimotor	0-2 years	Use of imitation, memory and thought Recognize that objects do not cease to exist when they are hidden Moves from reflex actions to goal-directed activity
2 Preoperational	2-7 years	Develops use of language and ability to think in symbolic form. Think operations through logically one direction. Difficulties in seeing other persons viewpoint
3 Concrete Operational	7-12 years	Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problems in logical fashion, Understands the law of conversation and is able to classify and seriate. Understands reversibility
4 Formal Operrational	12 plus years	Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion. Becomes more scientific in thinking. Develops concerns about social issues, identity. Overcoming talent develops Own beliefs and attitudes develops gradually

Therefore the students should be treated according to his / her stages of the development. Because the Cognitive development results from the interactions that children have with their physical and social environments.

Piaget's Developmental Theory: An overview (Davidson Films - A video)

Video of overview of Piaget's Developmental Theory

Piaget's approach is central to the school of cognitive theory known as "cognitive constructivism": other scholars, known as "social constructivists", such as Vygotsky and Bruner, have laid more emphasis on the part played by language and other people in enabling children to learn.

Criticisms of Piaget’s Stage Theor

1) Stages of learning are too rigid ( the stage implications may differ from child to child and it can not be generalized

2) Individual differences ignored. (The effect of cultural and SES (Socia-Economic Status) on Learning is ignored)

3) Piaget gave little importance on construction of new knowledge through social interaction and constructivist ideas.

Conclusion

Piaget's Developmental Theory is based on the type of learning behaviour by the children according to stage of development. In other words it is about the achievement of milestones by the children through out their developmental stages of life.

Based on the findings in this theory, my opinion for the teachers is to develop activities and other learning approaches according to the developmental stage of the child. It should not be too high or even too low.