3) Cognitive Leaning Theory 

Many cognitive theories focus on how people think about the information they receive from the environment. In cognitive Learning theory students learn through visual and auditory process. They learn more on listening and seen the pictures or the activities regarding the lesson. The teacher who knows about this theory should have enough knowledge and be prepared to make the lesson more interactive with the involvement of the students.

This theory mainly focus on how a student acquires, processes, stores, retrieves and activates his  knowledge during the different phases of the process of learning and making knowledge meaningful and helping students organize and relate new information to prior knowledge in memory. 

Video on Cognitive Theory Of Learning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUlfc5fzXV4

Edward Proposed:

• Learning can occur without reinforcement
• Learning can occur without a change in behaviour
• Intervening variables must be considered
• Behaviour is purposive
• Expectation of fact behaviour
• learning results in an organized body of information.

Gestalt  - He emphasized the importance of organizational processes of perception, learning, and problem solving.

• Perception is often different from reality. This includes optical illusions.

• The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

• The organism structures and organizes experience. 

• The organism is predisposed to organize experience in particular ways

Basic assumptions of cognitive learning theory;
1. Memory system is an active organized processor of information.
2. That prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
3. Some learning processes may be unique to human beings.
4. Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes.
5. People are actively involved in the learning process.
6. Knowledge is organized.”
7. Objective, systematic observations of people’s behavior should be the focus of scientific inquiry
8. Many cognitive theories focus on how people think about the information they receive from the environment-
9. How they perceive the stimuli around them,
10. How they put what they ’ve perceived into their memories,
11. How they “find” what they ’ve learned when they need to use it, and so own…collectively known as “information processing theory” (Ormrod, 2008, p. 163).

Video on Cognitive Learning Theories - Lady Gaga

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8mo2CLSKJ8&feature=youtu.be

Conclusion

Teaching is not just giving a lecture in front of the group of students. Teaching facilitates students to learn and understand the subject matter. The teacher should not keep the students sitting for 40 minutes, but he should enhance students centered learning environment for the students to gain maximum out of the lesson. 

In my opinion as educators / teachers we must observe students learning behaviours, their attitudes to wards learning, for that we must consider the environment inside and out side the  classroom and their personal needs and ideals as well.

SUMMARY OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY'S THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

A tabular comparison of Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development. This will illustrates the similar factors and non-similar factors between both the theories.

SN	Educational Issue	Piaget’s Cognitive- Developmental Perspective	Vygotsky’s Socio-cognitive Developmental Perspective
1	What does during cognitive development?	Domain-general mental operations that can be used to solve problems in various contexts.	Domain specific skill knowledge and expertise that is specific to a culturally valued problem.
2	How does learning occur?	Through discovery, invention. Learning is internal process of making sense of the external World.	Through social transmission. Learning is cognitive apprenticeship in which knowledge is passed from more able members of the culture to less able ones.
3	Is cognitive development universal or is it culturally specific?	Universal cognitive development unfolds in an invariant sequence.	Culturally-specific. Students develop skills and understandings that are valued by the culture but do not develop skills and understandings in non-valued domains.
4	What is the source of gains in cognitive development?	Rich, stimulating, challenging and responsive environments. Given these conditions and active, independent exploration, students construct knowledge.	Social interaction and guidance from highly competent   members of the culture. Students co-construct knowledge with competent partners through a process of guided participation
5	What is the role of the teacher?	To provide students with rich, stimulating, challenging, and responsive environments. Create cognitive conflicts. Ask questions about relationships (same? different?).	To select culturally valued problems to solve, introduce the tools of the culture, provide scaffolding within the student’s zone of proximal development, probe-question-scaffolding students’ thinking during dialogue.
6	What is the role of peers?	To stimulate cognitive conflict so act as to create disequilibrium.	To act as a mentor and guide, in much the same ways as the teacher.
7	How important is language development to cognitive development?	Largely unimportant.  Language is a by-product of thought.	Crucial.  Language is the most important tool of thought.
8	Recommended instructional strategies	Discovery-based learning;          Montessori classrooms; interest areas; project-based learning; curiosity-inducing strategies.	Scaffolding in the zone of proximal development (model—coach—fade); dialogue within an instructional conversation; cooperative learning.

Conclusion

One theory is cognitive developmental perspective while the other one is social cognitive perspective. In Piaget's the learning process occur through identification or finding out the subject matter, more on research work. but in Vygotsky's theory leaning process depends on social transmission, where knowledge is passed from more able members to less able members of the culture. 

In the first theory the role of the teacher is to provide a well designed suitable learning environment to stimulate the response to learning matters. However in the second theory the teacher play a mediator role to introduce cultural tools and valued problems related to the culture. So teacher provide maximum support to the students to gain their cognitive development. The role of the students (peers) is to develop discussions, negotiation to learn the subject matter thoroughly. Meanwhile in the Vygotsky's theory the students (peers) acts as mentors and guide the instruction by the teacher.

Therefore in the Piaget's theory students learning process depend on the findings, observations, creativity etc. While in the Vygotsky's theory students learning process depend on scaffolding (support) in the zone of proximal development.  

Humanistic theory of Motivation

Introduction

1. Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s.
2. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems.
3. Humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings.

Motivation

The process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. 

Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

There two theorists who mainly talk about Humanistic Approach of Motivation and are
1) Carl Roger  (1902 - 1987)

                           
2) Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970)

1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

This theory basically talks about the human factor and their needs. A person to become in a state where he reaches his self-actualization he need to fulfill is basic and other needs.

There are 5 level of need addressed in this theory;

1) Physiological Needs (such as Food, shelter, clothing etc.)

2) Safety Needs (Physical safety and security)

3) Social Needs (Social interaction with others, Relationships, group memberships etc)

4) Self Esteem (Self confidence of a person, recognition and approval of the person)

5) Self-actualization (Self fulfillment, social growth, pride, accomplishment etc)

There are some criticism against this theory. They suggest that this theory is not applicable for the people who needs special care.

2) Carl Roger's Humanistic Personality Theory 

Carl Roger supported Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory. In this theory basically talk about genuineness, acceptance and empathy.

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves.e humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. 

Self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e. who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).  Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.

The self-concept includes three components:-

1)Self worth (or self-esteem)

2)Self-image 

3)Ideal self 

Conclusion
Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons to perform various actions

In both the theories, humans are constantly reacting with their subjective reality - changes continuously in the development of self-concept, positive regard is key.

Therefore if a person who want to fulfill his needs he need to think positive aspect of it and try get maximum out of it.

References

https://www.boundless.com/psychology/personality/the-humanistic-perspective/rogers-theory/

https://www.boundless.com/psychology/the-science-of-psychology/history-of-psychology/humanistic-perspective/

2) Piaget's developmental theory 

Piaget is a Swiss psychologist. He started his work just before second world war. The main research areas of Piaget were how children develop and learn. He compared his theory with previous laboratory experiments and he developed the theory from child’s observable behaviours. 

Piaget's Key Ideas

1. Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation
2. Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.
3. Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.  
4. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other. 
5. Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features. 
6. Class Inclusion The understanding, more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs) 
7. Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different. 
8. Decentration
9. The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.
10. Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development. 
11. Operation The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads. 
12. Schema (or scheme) The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together. 
13. Stage A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of understanding some things but not others 

The Key Ideas of Piaget's

Piaget’s stages of Development

Stage	Stage defined	Explanation/ Implications
1 Sensorimotor	0-2 years	Use of imitation, memory and thought Recognize that objects do not cease to exist when they are hidden Moves from reflex actions to goal-directed activity
2 Preoperational	2-7 years	Develops use of language and ability to think in symbolic form. Think operations through logically one direction. Difficulties in seeing other persons viewpoint
3 Concrete Operational	7-12 years	Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problems in logical fashion, Understands the law of conversation and is able to classify and seriate. Understands reversibility
4 Formal Operrational	12 plus years	Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion. Becomes more scientific in thinking. Develops concerns about social issues, identity. Overcoming talent develops Own beliefs and attitudes develops gradually

Therefore the students should be treated according to his / her stages of the development. Because the Cognitive development results from the interactions that children have with their physical and social environments.

Piaget's Developmental Theory: An overview (Davidson Films - A video)

Video of overview of Piaget's Developmental Theory

Piaget's approach is central to the school of cognitive theory known as "cognitive constructivism": other scholars, known as "social constructivists", such as Vygotsky and Bruner, have laid more emphasis on the part played by language and other people in enabling children to learn.

Criticisms of Piaget’s Stage Theor

1) Stages of learning are too rigid ( the stage implications may differ from child to child and it can not be generalized

2) Individual differences ignored. (The effect of cultural and SES (Socia-Economic Status) on Learning is ignored)

3) Piaget gave little importance on construction of new knowledge through social interaction and constructivist ideas.

Conclusion

Piaget's Developmental Theory is based on the type of learning behaviour by the children according to stage of development. In other words it is about the achievement of milestones by the children through out their developmental stages of life.

Based on the findings in this theory, my opinion for the teachers is to develop activities and other learning approaches according to the developmental stage of the child. It should not be too high or even too low.

Theories of Learning

There are 5 Theories of Learning as illustrated in the below....

Picture 1: Theories of Learning.

1) Behavioural Learning Theory 

BF Skinner developed this theory. He believed that learning is mostly by behaviour change or modification of an individual. The individual behaviour is shaped or modified through his environment with the help of reinforcement (positive or negative reinforcement) but his brain activity remain without any change. Where the individual will give response when there is a stimulus. Therefore in this theory leaning process is focus on the stimulus and the response, and leaning is evidence by the behaviour change.

General Assumptions of Behaviorist Theories

1. Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals. (Equipotentiality)
2. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses.
3. Internal cognitive processes are largely excluded from scientific study.
4. Learning involves a behavior change.
5. Organisms are born as blank slates.
6. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
7. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious ones.

In this theory there are 3 types of learning

1) - Classical conditioning - addresses learning of involuntary response. For example; when the rings the sound alone stimulates the saliva flow in dogs. (Picture 2 & 3)

2) - Operant conditioning - addresses learning of voluntary response (Picture 4)

3) - Contiguity leaning - addresses learning of reinforcing stimuli (involuntary behaviour elicits)

Picture 2: Classical Conditioning before conditioning

Picture 3: Classical Conditioning during conditioning

Picture 4: Operant conditioning

There are 4 consequences that alter the behaviour of an individual. The table below represents the 4 consequences with examples.

Table 1: 4 consequences with examples

Consequences

1) Reinforcement - a consequence that follows an operant response that increase (or attempts to increase) the likelihood of that response occurring in the future. There are 2 types of reinforcement;

a) Positive Reinforcement - where rewards or something desirable is received to the individual after the behaviour occurs. For example, when a student complete home work well the teacher used to give a star for the student, it will increase the students motivation towards the subject and will continue to get more stars in the future.

b) Negative Reinforcement - where "Removed" or something undesirable is avoided after a behaviour occurs. For example, when the student is not done his home work, can keep the student after class until he completes his home work. So the student will never repeat the same thing and his behaviour will be corrected.

Picture 5: Positive and Negative Reinforcement

2) Punishment - any change that occurs after a behavior that reduces the likelihood that that behavior will occur again in the future. While positive and negative reinforcement are used to increase behaviors, punishment is focused on reducing or eliminating unwanted behaviors. According to Skinner (1974) there are 2 types of punishment 

a) Positive Punishment - This type of punishment is also known as "punishment by application." Positive punishment involves presenting an aversive stimulus after a behavior as occurred. For example, when a student talks out of turn in the middle of class, the teacher might scold the child for interrupting her.

b) Negative Punishment - This type of punishment is also known as "punishment by removal." Negative punishment involves taking away a desirable stimulus after a behavior as occurred. For example, when the student from the previous example talks out of turn again, the teacher promptly tells the child that he will have to miss recess because of his behavior.

Picture 6: Positive & Negative Punishment, Positive & Negative Reinforcement

Conclusion

The Behavioural learning theory is learning based only on behavioural change of an individual. The behaviour changing occurs within the environment of an individual. In this theory behaviorists do not measure understanding of the individual, because the brain activity of individual will remain without any change. The behaviorists agreed that the learning of behaviour occurs in a series of stimuli and response. Where the Classical Conditioning Theorists believe that a stimulus should be introduced first, then it should be followed by a response. This can be repeated to achieve the desired behviour from an individual. However, the Operant Conditional Theorists believe that a desired behaviour can be achieved by using reinforcers. 

Therefore, I would like to mention that Operant Conditioning is more likely to applicable to change the behaviour of individual or the a group and Classical Condition is too basic. So teachers can often use these techniques during the classroom in order to motivate students and change their behviour accordingly. We can also observe the reinforcing motivation of the classroom rewards and grades. 

Be a student Centered teacher - Keep up the Good Work

References

Skinner, B. F. (1974). About Behaviorism. New York: Knopf.

Behavioural Learning Theory